Vanadium is the 21st most abundant element in the Earth's crust and the 2nd-to-most abundant transition metal in sea water. The element is ubiquitous also in freshwater and nutrients. The average body load of a human individual amounts to 1 mg. The omnipresence of vanadium hampers checks directed towards its essentiality. However, since vanadate can be considered a close blueprint of phosphate with respect to its built-up, vanadate likely takes over a regulatory function in metabolic processes depending on phosphate. At common concentrations, vanadium is non-toxic. The main source for potentially toxic effects caused by vanadium is exposure to high loads of vanadium oxides in the breathing air of vanadium processing industrial enterprises. Vanadium can enter the body via the lungs or, more commonly, the stomach. Most of the dietary vanadium is excreted. The amount of vanadium resorbed in the gastrointestinal tract is a function of its oxidation state (V(V) or V(IV)) and the coordination environment. Vanadium compounds that enter the blood stream are subjected to speciation. The predominant vanadium species in blood are vanadate and vanadyl bound to transferrin. From the blood stream, vanadium becomes distributed to the body tissues and bones. Bones act as storage pool for vanadate. The aqueous chemistry of vanadium(V) at concentration <10 μM is dominated by vanadate. At higher concentrations, oligovanadates come in, decavanadate in particular, which is thermodynamically stable in the pH range 2.3-6.3, and can further be stabilized at higher pH by interaction with proteins.The similarity between vanadate and phosphate accounts for the interplay between vanadate and phosphate-dependent enzymes: phosphatases can be inhibited, kinases activated. As far as medicinal applications of vanadium compounds are concerned, vanadium's mode of action appears to be related to the phosphate-vanadate antagonism, to the direct interaction of vanadium compounds or fragments thereof with DNA, and to vanadium's contribution to a balanced tissue level of reactive oxygen species. So far vanadium compounds have not yet found approval for medicinal applications. The antidiabetic (insulin-enhancing) effect, however, of a singular vanadium complex, bis(ethylmaltolato)oxidovanadium(IV) (BEOV), has revealed encouraging results in phase IIa clinical tests. In addition, in vitro studies with cell cultures and parasites, as well as in vivo studies with animals, have revealed a broad potential spectrum for the application of vanadium coordination compounds in the treatment of cardiac and neuronal disorders, malignant tumors, viral and bacterial infections (such as influenza, HIV, and tuberculosis), and tropical diseases caused by parasites, e.g., Chagas' disease, leishmaniasis, and amoebiasis.
